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A. What did the world look like 12 000 years ago? In many ways it looked as it does today. There were oceans, lakes and rivers, mountains, hills and deserts. The main difference? Much more land was covered with forests and all the animals were wild. Human beings were hunters and gatherers. They usually lived in small bands (1). Often one large family made up a band. It included not only parents with children but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Sometimes, several smaller families formed a band.
B. No one knows exactly when that city was founded. According to legends, it is about 2700 years old. It is possible the stories are true. According to one of them, the city took its name from Romulus, a shepherd king who founded a settlement on the banks of the river Tiber after killing his twin brother Remus. Little is known about the first citizens of that time but the city was built on seven hills and its location gave the city a strong position. It was in a good place for building and controlling roads to the north and south. Those roads helped make the city a trading centre.
C. Russia was ruled by kings and queens called tzars. They had much control over their people. They ruled with the help of a few rich families. But a tzar could take away their land if he or she wished to do so. Any coal, iron or minerals found on their land belonged to the tzar. So did any trees that could be used in building ships. By the late 1700s nobles increased their power over the peasants. The peasants had always been tied to the land they worked. By the 1700s they were tied to the landowners. They could be bought and sold. When Catherine II was the tzar of Russia, she wrote, "Landowners do what ever seems good to them on their estates except sentence people to death."
D.The Roman Empire fell apart about 1,500 years ago. For several centuries afterwards, life in Europe changed very little. People used the same tools their parents and grandparents had used. Then about 600 years ago, Europeans began again experimenting with new ideas and tools. A great time of learning had begun. In ancient times, Athens and Rome were centres of learning. Now such centres were growing again. Such rebirth of learning began in Italy in about 1300. From there it spread throughout Europe during the 1400s and 1500s.
E. Alexander was born in the summer of 356 ВС. Не was the eldest son of Philip II, king of Macedonia (359-336 ВС). Alexander was well educated. One of his teachers was the famous philosopher Aristotle. The young prince got all the skills needed by a future king and commander. When Philip won complete control over the Greek city-states in 338 ВС, Alexander commanded the Macedonia army's victorious left wing. In 336 ВС after his father was killed Alexander immediately was made king of Macedonia. As a king Alexander ruled over much of Asia, took part in many famous battles, founded the city of Alexandria and got the title of Alexander the Great.